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Image: Van den Bos 2016
Neuroscience has increased our knowledge of memory and learning. This has led educators to consider how they might utilise this knowledge to help student learning.
There are different types of memory that reflect different abilities:
- Sensory Memory - holds information provided by the senses for a very short time
- Working Memory - holds information briefly while working with it
- Long-term memory - holds memories for longer periods (obviously)
Long term memory is divided into two main types:
- Explicit or Declarative - memory of facts and events.
Declaritive memory can be further subdivided into
- Episodic and Semantic memory.
- Implicit or Procedural - unconscious memory of skills
Remembering involves three processes: Encoding, Storing and Retrieving
1. Encoding information (learning it, by perceiving it and relating it to past knowledge)
2. Storing it (maintaining it over time)
3. Retrieving it (accessing the information when needed)
Failures can occur at any stage, leading to forgetting or to having false memories.
The key to improving one’s memory is to improve processes of encoding and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval.
There are different types of memory that reflect different abilities:
- Sensory Memory - holds information provided by the senses for a very short time
- Working Memory - holds information briefly while working with it
- Long-term memory - holds memories for longer periods (obviously)
Long term memory is divided into two main types:
- Explicit or Declarative - memory of facts and events.
Declaritive memory can be further subdivided into
- Episodic and Semantic memory.
- Implicit or Procedural - unconscious memory of skills
Remembering involves three processes: Encoding, Storing and Retrieving
1. Encoding information (learning it, by perceiving it and relating it to past knowledge)
2. Storing it (maintaining it over time)
3. Retrieving it (accessing the information when needed)
Failures can occur at any stage, leading to forgetting or to having false memories.
The key to improving one’s memory is to improve processes of encoding and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval.
What Happens Where in the Brain?
Mapping the brain: scientists define 180 distinct regions, but what now?
Latest Research in Brain Mapping Identifies Almost 100 New Regions
Researchers just doubled what we know about the map of the human brain
Map provides detailed picture of how the brain is organised
The Ultimate Brain Map
Mapping the brain: scientists define 180 distinct regions, but what now?
Latest Research in Brain Mapping Identifies Almost 100 New Regions
Researchers just doubled what we know about the map of the human brain
Map provides detailed picture of how the brain is organised
The Ultimate Brain Map
Image: MIT 2015
Good encoding techniques include:
- relating new information to what one already knows
- forming mental images
- chunking - creating associations among information that needs to be remembered
Retrieval
The key to good retrieval is developing effective cues that will lead the rememberer back to the encoded information.
Classic mnemonic systems, known since the time of the ancient Greeks and still used by some today, can greatly improve one’s memory abilities.
- relating new information to what one already knows
- forming mental images
- chunking - creating associations among information that needs to be remembered
Retrieval
The key to good retrieval is developing effective cues that will lead the rememberer back to the encoded information.
Classic mnemonic systems, known since the time of the ancient Greeks and still used by some today, can greatly improve one’s memory abilities.
Working Memory
Working memory involves our ability to hold information in our mind for short periods (that’s the memory part) in order to do something with it (that’s the working part).
Working memory is critical for focusing our attention, shutting out distractions, following directions, learning and successfully completing complex tasks.
Limitations of working memory:
- Limited Capacity - only about 4 items can be stored at a time. [This has been revised down from Miller’s Law of 7 +/- 2 (1956)]
- Limited Duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time)
We can minimise these limitations by:
- Avoiding distractions
- Using Chunking and Mnemonic strategies
- Making meaningful connections that build upon prior knowledge and interests
Working memory involves our ability to hold information in our mind for short periods (that’s the memory part) in order to do something with it (that’s the working part).
Working memory is critical for focusing our attention, shutting out distractions, following directions, learning and successfully completing complex tasks.
Limitations of working memory:
- Limited Capacity - only about 4 items can be stored at a time. [This has been revised down from Miller’s Law of 7 +/- 2 (1956)]
- Limited Duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time)
We can minimise these limitations by:
- Avoiding distractions
- Using Chunking and Mnemonic strategies
- Making meaningful connections that build upon prior knowledge and interests
Ted Talk
Peter Doolittle: How your Working Memory makes sense of the world
Educational psychologist Peter Doolittle details the importance — and limitations — of your working memory - that part of the brain that allows us to make sense of what's happening right now.
Peter Doolittle: How your Working Memory makes sense of the world
Educational psychologist Peter Doolittle details the importance — and limitations — of your working memory - that part of the brain that allows us to make sense of what's happening right now.
PEN = Psychology, Education, Neuroscience
Applying findings from neuroscience and psychology to student learning
Applying findings from neuroscience and psychology to student learning
Jared Cooney Horvath explains:
PEN Principle #1: Written Text and Spoken Word Do Not Mix
Fact Sheet
PEN Principle #1: Written Text and Spoken Word Do Not Mix
Fact Sheet
Classroom applications:
- Avoid giving students verbal instructions when students are doing a reading and or writing activity. Students can either listen or read but not do both.
- Plan to distribute text-based hand outs or lecture notes at the end of the lesson to prevent students reading the hand outs whilst you are talking.
- Avoid giving students verbal instructions when students are doing a reading and or writing activity. Students can either listen or read but not do both.
- Plan to distribute text-based hand outs or lecture notes at the end of the lesson to prevent students reading the hand outs whilst you are talking.
(Cooney Horvath, J. (2019). Stop Talking, Start Influencing: 12 Insights From Brain Science to Make Your Message Stick. Chatswood. Exisle Publishing.)
PEN Principle #2: Visual Images and the Spoken Word Mix Well
Fact Sheet
Fact Sheet
Classroom applications:
- Allowing students access to image-based hand outs during a lesson will not negatively impact listening and/or comprehension
- Allowing students access to image-based hand outs during a lesson will not negatively impact listening and/or comprehension
PEN Principle #3: Visual Predictability Guides Attention
Fact Sheet
Fact Sheet
Classroom applications:
- Delineate areas on the white board where particular instructions, notes or homework will be placed. Use these same locations each day.
- Determine how to best organise the desks, materials and posters in your classroom. Use the same locations for each throughout the year.
- Delineate areas on the white board where particular instructions, notes or homework will be placed. Use these same locations each day.
- Determine how to best organise the desks, materials and posters in your classroom. Use the same locations for each throughout the year.
PEN Principle #4: Spacing-Out Practice Enhances Memory
PodCast
PodCast
Classroom applications:
- regular study intervals over a period of time results in much better long-term memory and performance compared to short-term cramming.
- when preparing for exams, several short practice sessions are more beneficial than one lengthy review prior to the test date.
- regular study intervals over a period of time results in much better long-term memory and performance compared to short-term cramming.
- when preparing for exams, several short practice sessions are more beneficial than one lengthy review prior to the test date.
Classroom applications:
- If a major exam is to take place in an area such as the school auditorium, try to facilitate revision lessons or practice exams in that environment.
- If a major exam is to take place in an area such as the school auditorium, try to facilitate revision lessons or practice exams in that environment.
Classroom applications:
- When undertaking activities with multiple components, tackle each component separately to allow students to uni-task.
- ensure any technology used in lessons serves an explicit and integral part in the learning. If the technology is secondary to the main task, try to eliminate it.
- When undertaking activities with multiple components, tackle each component separately to allow students to uni-task.
- ensure any technology used in lessons serves an explicit and integral part in the learning. If the technology is secondary to the main task, try to eliminate it.
Classroom applications:
- Use interleaving instead of massed practice to improve student outcomes. It has been proved to improve long-term performance and transfer.
Massed practice is when there is a teaching focus on one area and then practice and revision drills are undertaken one concept at a time.
Interleaved practice is a teaching focus on several different concepts in a kind of mixed up fashion and then doing practice and revision drills of all of those concepts together.
- Use interleaving instead of massed practice to improve student outcomes. It has been proved to improve long-term performance and transfer.
Massed practice is when there is a teaching focus on one area and then practice and revision drills are undertaken one concept at a time.
Interleaved practice is a teaching focus on several different concepts in a kind of mixed up fashion and then doing practice and revision drills of all of those concepts together.
Classroom applications:
- students can be explicitly taught about the central relationship between errors and learning. This may lessen student fears about making mistakes and shift the focus from success to process.
- lessons can be scaffolded in such a way to allow for or even encourage error making. This could lead students to make mistakes which will deepen their engagement with the material and strengthen their learning.
- students can be explicitly taught about the central relationship between errors and learning. This may lessen student fears about making mistakes and shift the focus from success to process.
- lessons can be scaffolded in such a way to allow for or even encourage error making. This could lead students to make mistakes which will deepen their engagement with the material and strengthen their learning.
Classroom applications:
- flash cards can be used to boost recall
- if you want students to recall information in a text, design activities that allow students to interact with the text rather than simply read and re-read.
- plan for opportunities for high order questioning and discussion in lessons to boost active recall.
- flash cards can be used to boost recall
- if you want students to recall information in a text, design activities that allow students to interact with the text rather than simply read and re-read.
- plan for opportunities for high order questioning and discussion in lessons to boost active recall.
PEN Principle #10: First Impressions Colour Future Judgement
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- teachers and students form very quick opinions which tend to last – positive or negatively
- poor first impressions have been shown to flow through to impaired classroom results in students, and even through to exam and assignment marking; while positive first impressions have shown better results in the classroom and overall learning outcomes
- research indicates the importance for teachers of starting new subjects or class topics in a strong, positive manner as it is likely the first lesson will influence how students approach all future lessons and tasks.
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- teachers and students form very quick opinions which tend to last – positive or negatively
- poor first impressions have been shown to flow through to impaired classroom results in students, and even through to exam and assignment marking; while positive first impressions have shown better results in the classroom and overall learning outcomes
- research indicates the importance for teachers of starting new subjects or class topics in a strong, positive manner as it is likely the first lesson will influence how students approach all future lessons and tasks.
PEN Principle #11: Find the Story Behind the Fact
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- Individuals experience stories. Using narrative in the classroom generates improved engagement, empathy, personalisation and motivation
- this experience actually enhances memory by up to sixty percent when facts are embedded
within a story
- when exploring difficult concepts try to present the background story of why and/or how said facts were derived to help students contextualise and personalise potentially dry material
- introduce stories from your own life and experiences that are relevant to the content to enhance student engagement with the material
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- Individuals experience stories. Using narrative in the classroom generates improved engagement, empathy, personalisation and motivation
- this experience actually enhances memory by up to sixty percent when facts are embedded
within a story
- when exploring difficult concepts try to present the background story of why and/or how said facts were derived to help students contextualise and personalise potentially dry material
- introduce stories from your own life and experiences that are relevant to the content to enhance student engagement with the material
PEN Principle #12: Pre-Activate Strategies to Guide Learning
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- Determine how you would like students to interpret and interact with relevant lesson content
- Prior to lesson, allow students to undertake an activity that utilises this same interpretive strategy
- Content presented to students during warm-up activities will activate strategies that will influence how students comprehend novel content.
- Make sure any reviewed content is relevant to the upcoming lesson and presented in a manner consistent with desired learning strategies
Podcast
Classroom applications:
- Determine how you would like students to interpret and interact with relevant lesson content
- Prior to lesson, allow students to undertake an activity that utilises this same interpretive strategy
- Content presented to students during warm-up activities will activate strategies that will influence how students comprehend novel content.
- Make sure any reviewed content is relevant to the upcoming lesson and presented in a manner consistent with desired learning strategies
Ted Talk
V.S. Ramachandran: 3 Clues to Understanding Your Brain
Looking deep into the brain’s most basic mechanisms - mapping functions of the mind to physical structures of the brain
Ted Talk
Suzana Herculano-Houzel: What is so special about the human brain?
The human brain is puzzling — it is curiously large given the size of our bodies, uses a tremendous amount of energy for its weight and has a bizarrely dense cerebral cortex. But: why? Neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel puts on her detective's cap and leads us through this mystery and arrives at a startling conclusion.
Suzana Herculano-Houzel: What is so special about the human brain?
The human brain is puzzling — it is curiously large given the size of our bodies, uses a tremendous amount of energy for its weight and has a bizarrely dense cerebral cortex. But: why? Neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel puts on her detective's cap and leads us through this mystery and arrives at a startling conclusion.
Ted Talk
Jeff Iliff: One more reason to get a good night’s sleep
The brain uses a quarter of the body's entire energy supply, yet only accounts for about two percent of the body's mass. So how does this unique organ receive and, perhaps more importantly, rid itself of vital nutrients? New research suggests it has to do with sleep.
Jeff Iliff: One more reason to get a good night’s sleep
The brain uses a quarter of the body's entire energy supply, yet only accounts for about two percent of the body's mass. So how does this unique organ receive and, perhaps more importantly, rid itself of vital nutrients? New research suggests it has to do with sleep.
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References and Further Reading
Alire, J. (2016). Diagram of the brain and functions. Body Wellness Program. Retrieved from http://www.bodywellnessprogram.com/diagram-of-the-brain-and-functions/diagram-of-the-brain-and-functions-1000-ideas-about-brain-lobes-and-functions-on-pinterest-brain-diagram/
Bhandari, T. (2016). Map provides detailed picture of how the brain is organized.. Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. Retrieved from https://medicine.wustl.edu/news/map-provides-detailed-picture-how-brain-organized/
Cooney Horvath, J. (2019). Stop Talking, Start Influencing: 12 Insights From Brain Science to Make Your Message Stick. Chatswood. Exisle Publishing.
Cooney Horvath, J. (2015). PEN Principle #1: Written Word and Spoken Text Do Not Mix. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8R9Ko32XT70
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #2: Visual Images & Spoken Word Mix Well. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPhm_i6Puvs
Cooney Horvath, J. (2015). PEN Principle #3: Visual Predictability Guides Attention. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y6EPqBrYXw
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #4: Spacing-Out Practice Enhances Memory. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgGFmyNpANM
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #5: Leverage Context According to Outcome. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mml4B1w0mb4
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #6: Multitasking Impairs Memory & Learning. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7e3WnmNkhQ&feature=youtu.be
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #7: Mix-Up Practice Tasks to Boost Performance. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kz3V4997KPc&feature=em-upload_owner#action=share
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #8: Embrace Error to Improve Learning. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mEDnsR5ouH8&feature=youtu.be
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #9: Active Recall Trumps Passive Review. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTYpHrFykYk&feature=youtu.be
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #10 First Impressions Colour Future Judgement. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYiKsv9b3Vo&feature=youtu.be
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). PEN Principle #11. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gy-csRIsDvk
Cooney Horvath, J. (2016). SLRC PEN Principal #12. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojA7vDlHqes&feature=youtu.be
The Conversation. (2016). Mapping the brain: scientists define 180 distinct regions, but what now?. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/mapping-the-brain-scientists-define-180-distinct-regions-but-what-now-62972
Doolittle, P. (2013). How your "working memory" makes sense of the world. Ted.com. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_doolittle_how_your_working_memory_makes_sense_of_the_world#t-45977
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2015). Brain. Anatomy. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/brain
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2017). Broca area | anatomy. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/Broca-area
Gathercole, S. & Packiam Alloway, T. (2007). Understanding Working Memory: A Classroom Guide. Harcourt Assessment, Proctor House. Retrieved from https://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/Classroom%20guide.pdf
Genazzano Institute of Learning and Brain Sciences. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.geninstitute.vic.edu.au/
Harrod, M. (2013). Chunking. Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/book/the-glossary-of-human-computer-interaction/chunking
Health Favo. (2013). Human Brain Diagram Lobes. Health, Medicine and Anatomy Reference Pictures. Healthfavo.com. Retrieved from http://healthfavo.com/human-brain-diagram-lobes.html
Herculano-Houzel, S. (2013). What is so special about the human brain?. Ted.com. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/suzana_herculano_houzel_what_is_so_special_about_the_human_brain#t-149738
Iliff, J. (2014). One more reason to get a good night's sleep. Ted.com. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/jeff_iliff_one_more_reason_to_get_a_good_night_s_sleep
Mastin, L. (2010). The Human Memory - what it is, how it works and how it can go wrong. Human-memory.net. Retrieved from http://www.human-memory.net/
Mastin, L. (2010). Parts of the Brain. The Human Memory. Human-memory.net. Retrieved from http://www.human-memory.net/brain_parts.html
McDermott, K. & III, H. (2016). Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval). Noba. Retrieved from http://nobaproject.com/modules/memory-encoding-storage-retrieval#content
Nature Video. (2016). The ultimate brain map. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHDfvfYCY0U
The Peak Performance Center. (2011). Chunking. Retrieved from http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/thinking/chunking/chunking-as-a-learning-strategy/
Ramachandran, V. (2007). 3 clues to understanding your brain. Ted.com. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind#t-117337
Science of Learning. (2009). Personalized Teacher Professional Learning. Retrieved from http://www.scienceoflearning.com.au/#!videos---resources/cy9g8
Science of Learning Research Centre. 92018). Science of Learning Research Centre. Retrieved from https://www.slrc.org.au/
Science of Learning Research Centre. (2016). PEN Principles. Science of Learning Research Centre. Retrieved from http://slrc.org.au/resources/pen-principles/
Science of Learning Research Centre. (2016). PEN Principle #10 First Impressions Colour Future Judgement. Science of Learning Research Centre. SLRC. Retrieved from http://slrc.org.au/pen-principle-10-first-impressions-colour-future-judgement/
Van den Bos, W. (2016). Developmental and Decision Neuroscience. Max Planck Institute for Human Development. Available at: http://bits-of-information.org/DDN/
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